Fig. 4

a Schematic diagram of the process being modelled in Step 4. b Mean temperature profiles in the 5 m of dry soil below the Birkenhead case study lava flow at 4 days (i.e., the end of the actively flowing phase), and at 1 week, 1 month, 6 months and 9 months since the start of the cooling-only phase. c Results shown in (b) presented in the context of the operating temperatures of interest at the end of the actively flowing phase (4 days), and a week, a month, and 6 months after the start of the cooling-only phase. Nine months after the start of the cooling-only phase is not shown as it is the same as for 6 months (i.e., also a solid red bar). A schematic diagram along the lines of (c) can be provided to stakeholders to aid in decision making