Fig. 1

An overview of the methodology applied in this research. Four data sources are shown on the left as blue oblongs (A-D) and were compiled and filtered by the inclusion criteria stated within the box at the bottom right of the figure. GVP stands for the Global Volcanism Program (Global Volcanism Program 2023). For GVP records, the database Geological Summaries and Bulletin Reports were mined for data. For the published studies with impact data (D), for each impact event, each study was ranked by the specificity of study type (E; centre lower purple hexagon). The study types (with topic examples in brackets) ranked from highest to lowest are: 1) eruption impact assessment, 2) eruption study (e.g., eruption report, eruption chronology), 3) volcano study (e.g., geology of the volcano, past eruptions), 4) general volcanology study (e.g., other volcano, hazard modelling), and 5) other study (e.g., other natural hazard, disaster risk). Eruption or volcano studies are focussed on the eruption or volcano where the impact occurred. General volcanology studies include those where the focus is on a different volcano. Up to 10 of the highest-ranking studies for each event were selected. The hazard and impact information collated for each event across the four sources were ranked by scale (F; centre top purple hexagon) and the highest ranked data for each event were selected for the lava flow impact events dataset (G; right orange rectangle)