In response to the 2009 disaster in Verapaz, hazard monitoring strategies improved and a new settlement was built for relocating people living in at-risk zones. The analysis detailed below explains the state of hazard monitoring before and after the 2009 disaster; in brief, communication of hazards improved between DRR experts and local residents, which was demonstrated in a subsequent 2011 emergency. The resettlement project, which aimed to permanently remove residents from at-risk zones and provide them with new homes in New Verapaz, did not meet its goals entirely. Instead the at-risk zones remained fully inhabited, even as New Verapaz filled up with occupants. These unanticipated outcomes reflect the lack of consideration for local livelihoods, social networks, and connections to home when planning the resettlement project. Because the impact of relocation on these aspects of life in Verapaz was not explicitly considered, some families found their social vulnerability was increased in some ways, while others were able to take advantage of new resources to come up with their own hazard mitigation and improved socioeconomic strategies. Both the hazard monitoring and relocation projects focused primarily on geophysical vulnerability—getting people out of the path of the lahars. This understanding of vulnerability lent itself well to increased local participation in monitoring and planning for future lahars or other hazards; however, this was not so straight forward in the case of the resettlement project, which also required serious consideration of factors contributing to social vulnerability.
Disaster knowledge of authorities and at-risk populations: Before and after 2009
Salvadorans’ extreme vulnerability to natural hazards is well-known among practitioners and authorities, but hazard knowledge was not disseminated to at-risk populations or even local authorities tasked with disaster preparedness and response before the 2009 disaster. On the other hand, our data also show that residents did not communicate past experiences with disasters to practitioners and institutions before the 2009 lahar disaster. A complete lack of preparedness, little awareness, and no institutionalized measures for early warning or evacuation contributed to the human and material losses during the disaster. However, improvements in disaster knowledge and communication started to be implemented after the 2009 disaster; the success of these changes was demonstrated by the community response during Tropical Depression 12E in October 2011.
A prime example of hazard knowledge that was never shared with the at-risk population is the case of a comprehensive, country-wide volcanic hazard assessment conducted in 2004. This effort by SNET and the U.S. Geological Survey (USGS) produced a hazard map for San Vicente volcano that defined possible inundations zones and high, medium, and low risk areas for lahars of hypothetical volumes (Major 2004). This work was published (albeit, in English) and made freely available online. For reasons not fully understood, this hazard map was never disseminated to the residents or authorities in any of the five municipalities on the northern flank of San Vicente volcano. There was no enforcement of the 2003 law prohibiting construction within 50 meters of drainages, and no other restrictions were applied in Verapaz concerning where people could build homes, regardless of the fact that past lahars had destroyed parts of the town and that the new map indicated that populated areas were at high risk for debris flows. In fact, according to residents, most were completely unaware that any hazard analysis had ever been conducted in the region.
[The town] disappeared, because they had never done a study. They had never done a study to see if the zone was habitable, but people needed homes, and they risked living so close to a drainage. Practically at the shore of the creek, the neighborhood was constructed. – Interview 3
Similarly, the vast majority of respondents allude to their lack of awareness of the lahar hazard in Verapaz, and certainly no one was in any way prepared for the event that unfolded.
We never took it seriously, that it was possible that there could be such destruction…since no one ever told us that this had happened in the past, we didn’t know. – Interview 2
Though SNET was aware of lahar hazards in the region, information was not disseminated to municipal and departmental government institutions, including Civil Protection, as they were caught completely off-guard by the lack of warning and magnitude of the event in 2009.
The event took the government by surprise…afterwards, the government changed [its approach]. – Civil Protection representative
It is important to reiterate that the three municipalities near San Vicente considered at high risk for volcanic debris flows (Verapaz, Guadalupe, and Tepetitán) have all experienced these hazards first-hand over the last 100 years. The January and February 2001 earthquakes leveled much of Guadalupe and Verapaz, and in August of the same year a debris flow killed one person and damaged infrastructure. In 1913 and 1934, debris-flow events destroyed a large portion of Tepetitán, for which it is now called Antiguo Tepetitán (Old Tepetitán). This area was abandoned, and survivors resettled at (New) Tepetitán, located a couple hundred meters away from the ruins of Antiguo Tepetitán. Likewise, deposits from this event covered southern Verapaz, destroying homes along the Quebradona Creek and killing many individuals. Memories of this event were, in some cases, orally passed to younger generations. Experience with recurring disasters, however, does not necessarily translate into increased awareness or adoption of preparedness measures.
Grandfather told us when he was just a few months old, the first one occurred…the first one occurred in 1913—in 1913 it happened. Later, the second one occurred around 1934. In ’34, this town didn’t suffer as much as in 1913. Actually, 1913 was very devastating…practically the same zone that was destroyed in 1913 is where it happened again in 2009. – Interview 3
As the memory of the 1934 disaster faded, Verapaz’s expansion slowly encroached to encompass the exact area destroyed in 1934. Some structures, including a new hospital/clinic and many houses, were actually built around large boulders deposited by the 1934 flow because they were too large to move. Entire neighborhoods were constructed on top of lahar deposits, even though elderly residents recall advising builders not to invade the areas closest to the drainage where the disaster occurred in 1934. Some study participants remembered these stories and warnings from the older generation, but only in hindsight after the disaster. Some also expressed their lack of understanding that past events could repeat themselves.
They say—(aside) I don’t remember—that in 1934 the volcano washed out, and a large part of Tepetitan was lost with a large part of San Vicente. There was evidence that something had come down [the volcano]. That was in 1934…the people, the new generations—no one believed that another situation would occur. We have personally lived it, and know that it can. – Interview 10
Notably, representatives from DRR institutions were not aware of residents’ past accounts and oral histories. Indeed, most residents acknowledge that past disasters were not openly discussed or considered prior to the 2009 event. This fact represents that there has also been a communication disconnect of local hazard knowledge held by residents that was not openly communicated to scientists and authorities, exposing a two-sided hurdle in risk communication and risk reduction.
The 2009 Event and Official Response
The 2009 lahar disaster at San Vicente volcano made evident the risk communication and risk reduction problems outlined above. In the end, the disaster spurred the Government of El Salvador (GOES) to expand Civil Protection-led efforts and hire dozens of technicians who were trained and strategically placed in the most at-risk communities. In San Vicente, Civil Protection was free to partner with local GO and NGO institutions to strengthen their own capacity to engage local residents in education, preparedness, and training efforts in order to incorporate them into hazard monitoring activities. The GOS demonstrated its support to the victims through this expansion of Civil Protection. The Ministry of Housing and Urban Development also created a relocation scheme after the 2009 disaster to reduce the risk of people living in government-declared uninhabitable and high risk zones.
Between 11:00 pm – 3:00 am local time (UTC – 6 hours) on November 7–8, 2009, a low-pressure system related to Hurricane Ida caused intense rainfall (355 mm over a period of five hours) that triggered shallow landslides and deadly debris flows on the northern flank of San Vicente Volcano in Central El Salvador. Lahars inundated neighborhoods of towns in five municipalities (Guadalupe, Verapaz, Tepetitán, San Cayetano Istepeque, and San Vicente) killing more than 250 people and destroying between 130 – 200 homes (Figure 2). Though five municipalities encompass the northern flank of the volcano, the town and municipal center of Verapaz immediately became the symbol of the tragedy due to the impressive images of the damage and the tragic stories told by survivors (Figure 3).
Lack of warning and effective preparedness, and the timing and magnitude of the event all exacerbated disaster losses. Rescue and recovery efforts in the immediate aftermath of the disaster provided survivors with shelter, food, clothing, and healthcare. National and international development and aid institutions quickly conducted needs assessments to identify how to best provide for the affected areas and determine longer-term strategies to reduce vulnerability to future disasters (CEPAL 2010; Duran 2010; Government of El Salvador 2009).
Aid poured into the region to help with the short-term recovery effort, and plans for the resettlement in New Verapaz (two kilometers northeast of Verapaz) and additional DRR efforts followed (see inset Figure 2). Survivors reported positive experiences with the generosity offered by volunteers and aid organizations that provided food, clothing, and shelter. In the department of San Vicente, 130 – 200 homes were completely destroyed, so four existing structures (two schools, one church, one community center) were converted into provisional shelters. Most families reported living in shelters from a few weeks up to three months.
As response and aid distribution shifted from meeting basic needs to a longer-term solution to reduce risk, the Ministry of Housing and Urban Development declared that homes located within 300 meters on either side of the Quebradona drainage were “uninhabitable”. This decision immediately made 234 homes off-limits, and most of these families represent the most vulnerable sector of the population that had encroached into dangerous areas (Aguirre 2011). Many families resisted this policy decision—not only the families affected in 2009 but also many who were not directly affected but fell within the 300 meter “uninhabitable” range. To mitigate backlash and provide a more permanent risk reduction agenda, the Ministry of Housing and Urban Development purchased a parcel of land outside the high risk area for the construction of New Verapaz--a proposed settlement of 244 homes for affected residents located two kilometers away from Verapaz (Aguirre 2011; Gobierno de El Salvador 2010). Money for the land purchase and settlement construction was donated from the United Nations Development Program (UNDP), the Panamanian Embassy, Oxfam, UNICEF, the Italian Episcopal Conference, and the municipal government of Verapaz, and costs exceeded 5.4 million (USD). Government-issued announcements describe the overall goal of the resettlement project to “provide housing and new habitat for families” and meet “minimum basic conditions” for “humble, affected families” but mention nothing regarding community participation, livelihood considerations, or preservation of social networks (Ministerio de Vivienda y Desarrollo Urbano 2013a; Ministerio de Vivienda y Desarrollo Urbano 2013b).
In May 2010 (six months after the disaster), 60 families who had not made their own housing arrangement (temporary or permanent) or had not reoccupied their damaged homes were chosen randomly and given the opportunity to reside in temporary, pre-fabricated homes constructed at the site for New Verapaz (Figure 4). These 60 temporary homes fell far short of the 244 permanent homes the government promised (Aguirre 2011). Slowly, however, the temporary settlement evolved into the permanent solution designed by the Ministry of Housing and Urban Development. Eventually, families that completely lost their homes during the disaster or lived in homes within the confines of the newly designated “uninhabitable” area were offered a new, permanent home in New Verapaz. Groups of homes were constructed in phases, and this process took years. When a house was finished, a lottery was held to determine which family in the list of beneficiaries would receive the house. The vice-minister of Housing and Urban Development, Jose Roberto Gochez, celebrated commencing the final phase of construction in October 2012 by announcing that “the initiative will benefit 244 families, which in the coming months can count not only on adequate housing but a fully developed habitat” (Ministerio de Relaciones Exteriores de El Salvador 2012). The last batch of 123 permanent houses was not completed until March 2013, more than three years after the event (Ministerio de Vivienda y Desarrollo Urbano 2013a).
Even the President of the Republic, Mauricio Funes, indicated that a change needed to be made in order to avoid future disasters. Five months after the disaster, he addressed the communities of Guadalupe and Verapaz to reassure them that the disaster and the institutional shortcomings will not be repeated in the future.
We promise you, through government support, that new natural disasters will not have the same tragic consequences of [Tropical] Storm Ida. I have assured you personally…next time, institutions will not react the same, and we will not improvise and risk the lives of entire communities by not giving priority to risk prevention…– Mauricio Funes, President of El Salvador (Funes 2010)
For this reason, the 2009 disaster marks a “before and after” in terms of DRR in El Salvador. It was immediately recognized that the emergency overwhelmed not only the ill-prepared public but also institutional capacity. Lack of awareness, preparedness, and a reliance on reactionary strategies were deemed unacceptable, leading to institution-driven initiatives to reduce risk in the region. Strengthening Civil Protection’s capacity and training, hiring new community-based technicians, and closer collaboration with University of El Salvador investigations and NGO DRR initiatives were all improvements from the previous system. The Center for Disaster Protection (CEPRODE), the National Foundation for Development (FUNDE), the Municipalities for the Jiboa Valley (MIJIBOA), Caritas San Vicente Diocese, and a United Nations Development Program (UNDP) project all provided human and financial support to the broadened DRR strategy. An alliance of GO and NGO efforts have been effective at training local residents to monitor rainfall and calculate rainfall rates, better understand precipitation as a landslide/lahar trigger, and use a two-way radio communication network to report daily precipitation data and other observed changes (e.g., surface cracks) directly to the municipal Civil Protection technicians and others in the monitoring network. The results of these institutional efforts have improved hazard awareness and disaster preparedness, as demonstrated below in the response to Tropical Depression 12E in 2011.
Community-based early warning system effectiveness
The participatory approaches used by Civil Protection, the University of El Salvador, and a cadre of NGOs addressed the knowledge gap through inclusive training and education programs--especially for individuals who opted not to resettle and remained within the uninhabitable zone. These residents are now more vigilant to monitor quickly changing conditions that might indicate a possible lahar. Local monitors go upstream during heavy rains to check river levels and listen for landslides upslope or approaching lahars—information that they spread to the other residents awaiting news in their homes.
We are vigilant about checking on conditions, and we even go up to look at the stream to see how much water there is. – Interview 20 with resident of uninhabitable zone who claimed a house in New Verapaz and goes there during heavy rains.
In Agua Agria and in San Emigdio my friends pass time on the computer and on Facebook and they tell me when it’s raining. For whatever thing is happening, they warn me. – Interview 20 with resident of uninhabitable zone who claimed a house in New Verapaz and goes there during heavy rains.
Part of this new awareness comes out of having seen first-hand and survived the destruction in 2009. But ongoing institutional efforts have strengthened Verapaz’s and the surrounding communities’ organizational capacity to monitor environmental conditions. Participant observation carried out by the first author during the training of local observers and during field trips and scientific campaigns showed that community participants are engaged in the scientific process. Observations of local observers’ actions and attitudes during the management of a real crisis in 2011 and data gathered from the semi-structured interviews all establish that the partnerships between NGOs, the Universidad de El Salvador, and Civil Protection helped spark and maintain community-level interest in local monitoring initiatives. Rather than be passive recipients of information generated by unknown entities, local observers are actively involved in gathering data and making relevant observations while ensuring that the information is communicated to the authorities and the public.
Local observers within the CBEWS measure rainfall rates and communicate potentially dangerous conditions to local Civil Protection authorities via two-way radios. Observers also use the radios to communicate information to one another and to the municipal hub in Verapaz. Information is then distributed via cell phones, SMS messages, social media, and during emergencies the local Civil Protection technician will communicate information and recommendations via megaphone throughout Verapaz.
Each municipality is equipped with a weather station, a communication hub, and a Civil Protection technician/liaison; and key actors are trained in standard operating procedures during emergencies. Residents are watchful and learn to recognize potential precursors and signs that might provide warning to future hazard events, such as lahars, landslides, and floods. Residents’ decisions to temporarily relocate and evacuate the high risk zone during periods of heavy rain or during official Civil Protection warnings makes effective use of new training, increased awareness, and a safer space provided in New Verapaz. Institutional support has made these improvements a priority, and all of these steps have been realized after the 2009 disaster.
Tropical Depression 12E in October 2011 was the first time the Centers for Emergency Operations (COE) were activated. I (first author) was present during the entire, 12-day-long crisis and used participant observation, field notes, post-emergency reports, and targeted interviews with DRR representatives to analyze the effectiveness of the new emergency management strategy. Though participants’ hypothetical roles and responsibilities were taught during a five-month-long emergency management certification course, Tropical Depression 12E occurred before trained individuals could participate in a scheduled emergency simulation exercise. The first real-life application of the training received occurred during the nearly two-week-long emergency presented by Tropical Depression 12E. The first two days after Civil Protection elevated the hazard alert level and activated the COE, Civil Protection and CEPRODE facilitated the designation of actors’ management roles. Also, communication protocols were established between local observers, authorities, and the public. Throughout the following ten days of emergency management, the connection to the network of local observers proved invaluable at reporting data in near real-time, which allowed decision makers to evacuate at-risk residents in a timely manner. As active, trained participants in risk reduction, local residents and DRR institutions are better connected and rely on one another to correct some of the past communication and hazard awareness problems. The new COE program was able to successfully utilize the close social networks of the Verapaz Community to communicate critical geophysical data, hazard warnings, and evacuation recommendations.
Mixed Success in Relocation Efforts
Differing understandings of priorities between outside authorities and Verapaz residents also played out in other medium and long-term assistance provided for disaster mitigation and recovery, particularly the Ministry of Housing and Urban Development’s relocation scheme that developed. Relocation planners aimed to permanently remove residents from the uninhabitable and at-risk zones in Verapaz. This was not achieved, although alternate housing was provided and occupied by some extended family members from at-risk households, newcomers to the area, and some at-risk residents downstream whose homes fell within the 50 meter “high-risk” delineation. The results discussed in this section examine, from the viewpoint of families from the at-risk zone, how the resettlement project unfolded, what advantages and disadvantages they saw within the project, and how they came to decide where to reside. Based on their responses, a disruption of livelihoods, social networks, and ties to home were among the most common reasons why residents decided not to permanently relocate from their at-risk homes.
The relocation project design demonstrated a lack of awareness on the part of project planners about day-to-day survival and social vulnerability in Verapaz. Community “participation” in the project was limited to families’ obligatory labor during construction of their new homes alongside the contractors hired by the Ministry of Housing and Urban Development. Because of the limited incorporation of local concerns and knowledge, the relocation project brought some unanticipated outcomes. Affected residents largely fall into four distinct groups. Some residents were forced to move to New Verapaz because there were no other viable housing options when their houses were completely destroyed. Other residents initially relocated to New Verapaz but returned to their original, at-risk homes in Verapaz. Another contingent used the relocation project to their advantage by claiming a house in New Verapaz with the intent of remaining in Verapaz while renting the new house for additional income or gifting it to family members in need. Finally, there is a group of residents who remained in Verapaz and has no intention of relocating. The Ministry of Housing and Urban Development struggled to achieve desired objectives, because livelihoods, social networks, and strong ties to homes were not adequately considered during project design and implementation.
Except for homes that were completely destroyed and swept away from their foundations, nearly every other home left standing was cleaned out and reoccupied in the days and weeks after the disaster. Houses that were buried up to their rooftops in mud, boulders, and debris—houses where family members were killed—were patched up, swept out, and made livable. For outsiders (foreigners or national authorities/practitioners), it made little sense that residents would want to reoccupy their former homes after having experienced the trauma of the 2009 debris flows. A seemingly rational institutional response to the situation facilitated the hasty approval of the permanent relocation program by government authorities at the Ministry of Housing and Urban Development. Two actions were taken to facilitate this development project: 1) southern Verapaz was declared uninhabitable, which legally prohibited residents’ reoccupation of homes, and 2) the construction of first temporary, then permanent homes in a new settlement—New Verapaz—where affected families could relocate.
Project implementers in the Ministry of Housing and Urban Development deem the initiative a success because each of the new homes is occupied. For the residents in New Verapaz, as described below, physical exposure to the lahar hazard has certainly diminished compared to living in high-risk or uninhabitable zones. However, occupation of these new homes does not mean no one is living in the high-risk or uninhabitable zones. Occupants of the new homes include not only relocated residents from Verapaz, but also outsiders who were able to get included on the beneficiary list, family members who have split off from multi-generational families residing in Verapaz, and residents new to the area renting the new home from families that have moved back to or stayed in Verapaz. In reality, the homes that were not totally destroyed in the uninhabitable zone and high-risk focus area are still nearly completely occupied, as residents are reluctant to relocate mainly due to disruption of livelihoods and unwillingness to abandon social networks. The relocation initiative systematically (yet unintentionally) exacerbates social vulnerability for some households in both Old and New Verapaz, yet also opened some select opportunities for particular families that claimed additional free houses, rented newly claimed homes while continuing to reside in their old homes, or claimed a new home even though they were not affected in 2009.
The 19 families interviewed who have reoccupied their old homes do not live amongst the ruins of their old neighborhood in their original houses because they have no other option. A new home in New Verapaz was made available to each of them. The reasons behind their reluctance to move are rooted in social, cultural, and economic realities that dissuade the population from abandoning a deeply ingrained and advantageous system that offers strategies to cope with economic and social vulnerability. Livelihood disruption, deterioration of social networks, and strong ties to original homes are the main reasons why residents were reluctant to relocate.
Disruption of Livelihoods due to Relocation
Most reluctance to relocate revolves around the different ways this dramatic change would disrupt livelihood strategies. Since most families rely on agriculture, moving away from farmland proved difficult. New Verapaz is too far away from traditional agricultural lands, cherished homes, and other economic opportunities. Access to lands is not only important for convenience, but it is also important to be close to ensure that produce and animals are not stolen.
Our [farm] land is close, but leaving here for [outer reaches of New Verapaz] our lands would be too far away. We barely make enough to feed ourselves. Having to travel and pay for gasoline would take away any remaining profits. – Interview 1 with resident of uninhabitable zone who chose not to relocate.
One of the advantages [of living here] is this is the zone we work. We work the land. If we leave, we leave everything behind, and it’s taken years of effort. Thirty years we’ve been here, we couldn’t leave. We stay here because this is where we have everything, and if we leave, we have to leave it all behind. We would have to start all over, alongside strangers, with a new lifestyle. – Interview 1 with resident of uninhabitable zone who chose not to relocate.
Since homes and some plots are passed from generation to generation, the modifications and improvements are highly valued, especially since the investments required to make these changes take so much work. To abandon years of hard work and dedication to make a place “home” was considered unthinkable.
In addition, homes in New Verapaz are located off the main road and far away from the bus route, so unlike Verapaz very little business traffic arrives to household-run shops since there is no public transportation into or throughout the new settlement. Relocation meant an inconvenient commute for all residents, including wage laborers and women traveling to participate in market activities. Acquiring reliable transportation from New Verapaz to the main transportation routes in Verapaz proved to be too much for some residents. One relocated individual who decided to return to the uninhabitable zone explained:
Sometimes we got a ride [out of New Verapaz], but sometimes we had to have money to travel, unless we wanted to walk out on foot. Sometimes we found a ride to drop us off [near Verapaz], but afterwards, I said, “Its better if we stay here [at our old house]. – Interview 2 with resident who relocated but chose to return to the uninhabitable zone
Increased distance is an inconvenience, but access to electricity and water are vital for many tasks that further diversify income generation. There was no electricity, and there were only communal bathroom facilities in New Verapaz, even two years after the completion of the first round of permanent houses.
Some of us never left [our original home] even from the beginning because there was no electricity [in New Verapaz]. – Interview 2 with resident who relocated but chose to return to the uninhabitable zone.I lived in the new settlement for a year. I lived there for a year because they said they would provide electricity and that we would each have our own bathroom, but that never happened. – Interview 4 with resident who relocated but chose to return to the uninhabitable zone.
For families with diversified livelihoods running small shops that required power (e.g. seamstresses, dairy vendors needing refrigeration, corner store owners), it was impossible to run their business without electricity, which dissuaded small business owners.
There are people here [in their old houses] that have been given new houses there [in New Verapaz] but they don’t go because the cheese spoils. There is no way to refrigerate. – Interview 2 with resident who relocated but chose to return to the uninhabitable zone.
Also, gifted plots of land in New Verapaz are small (10 x 20 meters), especially when compared to the space to which residents were accustomed. Finally, homes are built right next to one another (Figure 4). There is no room in New Verapaz to have animals (e.g., chickens, cows, pigs, goats), which are highly valued in the local culture and help provide families with food and additional income.
Disruption of Social and Kinship Networks and Ties to Home
In addition to livelihood disruption, the unweaving of the tightly-knit social fabric was a major factor that dissuaded families from relocating. A lottery-type system was employed to help fairly distribute new homes. Similar problems with this style of housing distribution were documented in Turkey, as family units were randomly distributed throughout resettlement areas and received homes at different stages of the project (Enginöz 2004). This system, which was specifically engineered to avoid suspicions of political favoritism, had the unintended consequence of destroying familial networks. When families and neighbors were not allowed to move together as one unit into New Verapaz, moving meant that the social capital that this network traditionally provides was fractured. In the nearby Lempa River Basin, social capital was regarded by (Bankoff et al. 2013: 82) as a major factor in “reducing vulnerability and an unavoidable starting point for risk reduction.” Residents who had relied on family and neighbors for generations were suddenly forced to live apart in different regions of New Verapaz. New neighbors were sometimes complete strangers, as many of the people on the beneficiary list were homeless individuals who had flocked to the area in hopes of taking advantage of the assistances being offered to the affected population. Families relocated based on the “luck of the draw” lottery system rather than family and kinship units that defined community life in Verapaz.
During times of need, families and proximal neighbors support one another. In many instances, extended families and trusted neighbors occupied an entire block or portion of a neighborhood. Whether it be watching the house while a family member was out of town or working the field, trading different food crops, babysitting or even sharing child-rearing responsibilities, this social support network was key to a smooth-functioning way-of-life. Relying on family and neighbors was considered necessary.
The truth is, with all of the other problems we have, we don’t have people here looking for more problems [delinquents]—we don’t allow it…life goes on and we live on. At least we survive. The truth is, if you need something but don’t have it and I do, then we both get by. It’s a form of co-existing. – Interview 3 with resident of high-risk area who never relocated to New Verapaz.
People get along really well here, even more so after [the disaster], we are even more like family. We are more united. It’s OK if someone needs something—between everyone we find a way to solve it…I tried to live [in New Verapaz] but it was insufferable. – Interview 9 with resident who relocated but returned to the uninhabitable zone.
Not only did the lottery prohibit extended family and neighbors to move together, the actual size of the new house was not conducive for multi-generational families. The new houses only had two small bedrooms, so the design of the home made it impossible for entire family units to move together. This is one of the primary reasons why newly provided homes in New Verapaz are occupied but existing homes within the uninhabitable and high-risk areas are also occupied by the same extended family. For many families, select members have relocated, leaving the other portion of the family behind because there is simply not enough space.
The mayor came here and told us to go to the new settlement. I told him “Yes” but only if they gave me the same size plot. He said, “No” and that he couldn’t give me any more land. The lot is tiny. So I told him, “No thanks.” – Interview 1 with resident of uninhabitable zone who chose not to relocate.
In addition to plots and houses being small, houses are very close together, which has caused social problems.
We hear about problems with neighbors, that they don’t get along. Remember that when you have houses like that, like in San Salvador, where one wall serves two houses—no way, man! They even know how you sleep, and it’s terrible! – Interview 3 with resident of high-risk area who never relocated to New Verapaz.
We are not accustomed to living this way, in these spaces [closely spaced houses]. -- Interview 23 with relocated resident whose original house in the high-risk zone was damaged but not destroyed.
This system not only divided familial networks, but it also brought to light a completely different problem—individuals and families from outside Verapaz who mysteriously appeared on the list of beneficiaries to receive houses. Local families continuing to live in their old homes frequently describe “aprovechados”—people from other towns that came to take advantage of the aid by saying they resided in the area but lost everything and are therefore deserving of a new, free house. A majority of interviewees explain that some of the first houses donated were, in fact, given to complete strangers that no one in Verapaz recognized. This resulted in major frustration and overall distrust in the process of project implementation, as well as cultivated suspicions of political favoritism—the very thing the lottery system claimed to avoid.
Some groups of families attempted to circumvent the lottery system by waiting to accept a new, permanent home. They are waiting until the very end of the lottery, even though they might come up “next in line” to receive a new house. This reluctance is based on the hope that if they forego a home when their name is called, at the end of the project, the remaining families will all get to move together in the same area of New Verapaz.
Finally, residents repeatedly refer to their land as their “home”— it is where the family has lived for generations. As long as conditions do not improve in New Verapaz, there is no incentive to leave the area that is so familiar and has always proved sufficient to meet basic needs.
I came back in May [2010], and I felt at peace because this is where I have lived for so long…They gave me a provisional house, but I couldn’t stand living there. Firstly, because there wasn’t power. The house was very small. The sun was so strong, it was so hot in the afternoon—so hot. And the [communal] bathrooms were filthy… – Interview 4 with resident of uninhabitable zone who relocated but returned to original home.
Simply put, New Verapaz is not “home.”
Relocation success
As noted above, a number of unintended outcomes resulted from the relocation scheme. In particular, some of these actually served as DRR strategies, although not in the ways that any DRR experts had intended. For example, the design of the resettlement effort and the distribution of homes at New Verapaz has unintendedly provided an emergency alternative housing option for many of the families that have chosen not to relocate. Having friends, family, or tenants living in their donated house ensures that they have a place to go during emergencies.
Every rainy season we leave. When it gets bad, I leave—I pack my bag and I leave. I am scared, but I live here [uninhabitable zone]. When the rainfall is strong, I go [to the new settlement]. – Interview 15 with resident of high-risk zone who claimed a new house but continues to reside in the original home.People come back here [uninhabitable zone] because they feel more comfortable with everything they have in their homes. But in the rainy season, when the storms come, they leave running. A lot of people still run over there [to the new settlement]. – Interview 19 with resident of high-risk zone who claimed a new house but continues to reside in the original home.
This partial relocation was clearly not the intended result of the new settlement, but at least during times of crisis, families are aware that they are in danger and flee to a safer area.
A successful relocation effort that fully removed people from at-risk zones might be attainable in El Salvador if certain criteria were met, including:
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1)
A new home with lands equal to or better than previous conditions
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2)
A guarantee that families, neighbors, and friends live in close proximity to each other, as was the case before the 2009 disaster
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3)
Access to water, electricity, and sanitation facilities that are essential for healthy living and the needs of small businesses
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4)
Proximity to farm lands
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5)
Adequate space and permission to tend chickens, pigs, cattle, goats, etc.
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6)
Easy access to public transportation
However, these criteria were not met, and as a result, the portions of Verapaz that have been deemed uninhabitable are still occupied.